What Do Press Secretaries Do House of Representatives

Chief spokesperson for the executive branch of the U.South. government

White House Press Secretarial assistant
Incumbent Jen Psaki since January 20, 2021
White House Office of the Press Secretary
Appointer	President of the The states
Formation	March 4, 1929; 92 years ago  (1929-03-04)
Offset holder	George Akerson
Website	White House Press Role Press Briefings

The White Firm press secretary is a senior White House official whose primary responsibleness is to act every bit spokesperson for the executive co-operative of the federal government of the United states of america, especially with regard to the president, senior aides and executives, equally well as regime policies.

The press secretary is responsible for collecting information virtually actions and events within the president'southward administration and issues the administration'south reactions to developments around the earth. The press secretary interacts with the media and the White Firm press corps on a daily basis, generally in a daily press conference. The printing secretary serves past the appointment and at the pleasure of the president of the United States; the part does not crave the advice and consent of the United States Senate, however, considering of the frequent briefings given to the global media, who in plough inform the public, the position is a prominent non-Cabinet postal service.

On Nov 29, 2020, President Biden announced he had selected Jen Psaki to serve as White House press secretary during his presidency.^[1] Including Psaki, the final four consecutive White House press secretaries have been women.

History [edit]

Early press relations [edit]

During the United States' early years, there was not a single designated staff person or role responsible for managing the relationship between the president and the growing number of journalists and media entities that were covering him.^{[two] : 3} It was not until afterwards President Abraham Lincoln'south administration that Congress formally appropriated funds for a White House staff, which at first consisted merely of a secretarial assistant. Ulysses South. Grant'due south White House staff officially numbered six people at a cost of $xiii,800, though he supplemented with personnel from the War Department. L years later under the Coolidge assistants, the staff had increased to merely fewer than fifty people at a cost of nearly $100,000.^{[2] : 3}

As presidents increasingly hired more staff, some showed a trend to selection aides and confidantes who had backgrounds in the field of journalism.^{[2] : 3} One of Abraham Lincoln's individual secretaries, John M. Nicolay, had been an editor and possessor of a newspaper in Illinois earlier he worked for the president in the White Business firm.^{[two] : 4} While the modernistic equivalent of a individual or personal secretary to the president of the Us would be more narrowly concerned with the care and feeding of the president,^[iii] the small-scale size of the White House staff at that betoken meant that Nicolay interacted with the press occasionally in conveying out his duties.^{[two] : 4} He was occasionally asked to verify stories or information that diverse members of the printing had heard.^{[ii] : four} Though the title and establishment of the roles and responsibilities of the press secretary task was nevertheless decades in the time to come, the small and growing White Business firm staff was increasingly interacting with a growing number of professional journalists and mass media entities covering the president and the White House.^{[two] : 4} Andrew Johnson was the showtime president to grant a formal interview request to a reporter, sitting down with Col. Alexander K. McClure from Pennsylvania.^{[2] : 7} Although various presidents and reporters had participated in conversations or dialogues prior to Johnson, the exchanges had been less formal.^{[2] : 6}

Cleveland and McKinley administrations [edit]

Prior to the 1880s and the presidency of Grover Cleveland, the relationship between the president, his assistants, and the pocket-size but growing number of newspapers covering him was such that there was little need for a formal plan or designated spokesperson to manage it.^{[2] : 3} The human relationship betwixt government and the press was not as inherently adversarial and arms length as in modernistic times. In fact, prior to the establishment of the U.South. Government Printing Part (GPO), some newspapers were awarded contracts to print government publications and often awarded the president with support in exchange.^{[ii] : three} For example, the Gazette of the United States won an early U.S. Treasury contract and was supportive of then-president Washington.^{[2] : 7} In general, though coverage of the president could be harsh and opinionated, newspapers were to some degree extensions of the political political party apparatus and subsequently not seen equally entities requiring specific, sustained direction by the White Business firm or administration.

The media had changed significantly by 1884, when Grover Cleveland was elected every bit president of the United States. Between 1776 and 1884, the United states had quadrupled in size and increased in population from 2.5 million to 56 meg.^{[two] : 7} The number of newspaper publications in active circulation had increased from 37 to more than one,200 dailies, in addition to the many new monthly magazines.^{[two] : seven} The rapid growth in journalism as a booming industry resulted in an increase in reporters covering the activities of the president.^{[2] : 8}

Grover Cleveland married 21-twelvemonth-old Frances Folsom in 1886. The growing number of reporters and the increasing aggressiveness of their style of coverage led to frustrations when the president and his new bride were unable to rid themselves of reporters who followed them to their honeymoon in Deer Park, Maryland.^{[2] : 8} President Cleveland relied on his private secretary, Daniel Lamont, who had once been an editor of the Albany Argus, to go on the reporters at bay.^{[two] : 8} The controversy surrounding coverage of the trip resulted in a public debate well-nigh the balance between the right of the president and his family to privacy and the role of the press in covering the state'due south nearly public figure.^{[2] : ix} In an editorial, the New York World defended the correct of the printing to cover the president at all times:

The idea of offending the bachelor sensitiveness of President Cleveland or the maidenly reserve of his bride has been far from anybody's thought...Nosotros must insist that the President is public belongings; that information technology is perfectly legitimate to send correspondents and reporters to follow him when he goes on a journeying, and to keep lookout man over him and his family.^{[2] : ix}

White Business firm press corps [edit]

At the end of the Cleveland administration, a new characteristic of press coverage of the White House materialized. William Westward. Price, a southern reporter, auditioned for a task at the Washington Evening Star by stationing himself at the White House to seek out stories.^{[ii] : 11} He interviewed guests coming and going from meetings or events with the president and ultimately reported a story in a piece conveying the headline "At the White House".^{[2] : 11} Competitor newspapers responded past sending their own reporters to comprehend the White Business firm in a daily, sustained manner and soon the White House had reporters defended to roofing the "White House shell". Some betoken to this as the early origins of a more than formal White Firm Press Corps.^{[2] : 11}

When President Cleveland was elected to a 2nd, non-consecutive term in 1893, George B. Cortelyou, formally trained equally a stenographer, was named confidential stenographer at the White Firm and later named executive clerk.^{[two] : thirteen} Though he was not given the formal title of individual secretary to the president until later and the term press secretarial assistant had not notwithstanding been conceived, Cortelyou was highly respected by the press and William McKinley'south biographer, Margaret Leach, chosen Cortelyou "the first of the presidential printing secretaries".^{[2] : 13} President Cleveland's successor, William McKinley, kept Cortelyou on during the transition and later formally named him private secretarial assistant to the president, though he had been informally doing the job for some time prior.^{[two] : 14} Under McKinley, Cortelyou became notable for his popularity with journalists covering the White House.^{[2] : 16} The correspondents relied on him for data and his tenure equally private secretary was noteworthy for some of the same working traits modernistic press secretaries take become pop for,^[4] including providing information to reporters afterwards in the evening if events had transpired in the afternoon, offering accelerate copies of remarks prepared for the president, and ensuring reporters received transcripts of unprepared remarks made by the president while traveling, which were recorded past a stenographer.^{[two] : 16} Cortelyou also circulated noteworthy stories to the president and other staffers (by this point the White House staff numbered approximately 18),^{[two] : 14} which is similar to the exhaustive news summaries formally distributed to the White House staff in the modernistic era.^[5] The nascent press corps' appreciation for Cortelyou's responsiveness is similar to how a modern White Firm press secretary'southward responsiveness to the printing corps tin shape their positive or negative view of him or her.^[six]

Working space in the White House for the press corps [edit]

The White House "beat" concept that had been started during the Cleveland administration by reporter William Cost was connected during the McKinley administration.^{[2] : fourteen} Around the fourth dimension of the outbreak of the Spanish–American State of war in 1898, the reporters covering the White Firm were invited into the mansion itself and provided with infinite to write, behave interviews, and generally cover the White Firm.^{[2] : 14} Now reporting from inside the White House, the reporters used their new location to interview guests entering or leaving the White House or confirm pieces of data from the president's secretaries as they passed through in the grade of their duties. Reporters working in the White House did, nevertheless, honour an unspoken rule and refrain from asking the president himself a question if he happened to walk through their working area.^{[2] : fourteen}

The long-term presence of the White Business firm Press Corps in the White House was cemented past Theodore Roosevelt, who asked that planners include permanent space for the press corps in the executive office building now called the Westward Wing, which he had ordered built in the early 1900s.^{[two] : 18} Information technology is the West Wing that ultimately housed the Function of the Press Secretary^[seven] and the now-famous James S. Brady Printing Briefing Room, which was redone by the George Due west. Bush-league assistants in 2007.^[8]

Woodrow Wilson assistants [edit]

When Woodrow Wilson was elected governor of New Bailiwick of jersey in 1910, he asked Joseph P. Tumulty to serve as his private secretarial assistant.^{[2] : 25} When he was elected president two years later, he brought Tumulty with him to the White House, where Tumulty served as private secretary to the president.^{[ii] : 25} As private secretarial assistant, Tumulty dealt extensively with the press.^{[ii] : 27} At the outset of the administration, Tumulty convinced Wilson, who was known for his distaste of the printing,^{[2] : 25} to hold news conferences on a regularized schedule, sometimes as much as twice every week.^{[2] : 29} During the first such news conference, over one hundred reporters crowded into Wilson'due south function to ask him questions.^{[2] : 31} Wilson ofttimes requested that reporters not publish answers given in these settings and on one occasion threatened to abolish the news conferences when a reporter revealed comments he had given regarding Mexico.^{[2] : 31} The press conferences were later discontinued after the sinking of British liner Lusitania, and despite attempts to revive them during his second term were held only sporadically during Wilson'due south final years in office.^{[2] : 31–32}

Joseph Tumulty likewise put into place a more regular schedule of briefing the press.^{[2] : 31} He gave daily briefings to the printing in the morning, which were attended by as many as 30 reporters.^{[2] : 31} By formalizing the press briefing process, Tumulty laid the groundwork for what would later be chosen the White Firm Press Briefing.^{[2] : 32} Tumulty also worked to clarify embargo rules for the press, ordering that the exact time a press embargo was lifted exist noted on the confidential information that was being released.^{[two] : 32}

Calvin Coolidge and Herbert Hoover administrations [edit]

Despite being nicknamed "Silent Cal", many reporters roofing the White House institute President Calvin Coolidge to be fairly accessible one time he took office in 1923 following the death of President Warren M. Harding.^{[2] : 42} During his over five years in office, Coolidge held approximately 520 press conferences, which averaged out to nearly 8 per month.^{[2] : 42} The term "White House spokesman" was used extensively for the offset time during the Coolidge administration, equally printing conference rules mandated that reporters could attribute quotes or statements merely to a "White Business firm spokesman" and not straight to the president himself.^{[ii] : 42} Onetime Associated Press editor West. Dale Nelson suggests that this practice was a precursor to the more mod utilize of "senior assistants official"^[9] offering statements or quotes not directly attributable to a specific person, which was used frequently past Henry Kissinger during the Nixon assistants.^{[2] : 43}

When Herbert Hoover causeless the presidency in 1929, he brought his longtime aide George E. Akerson to Washington with him every bit his private secretarial assistant.^{[2] : 47} Akerson did non accept the formal title of "printing secretary", but was the designated person to speak on behalf of President Hoover.^{[2] : 47} Hoover asked the White House Correspondents Association to grade a commission to talk over matters pertaining to coverage of the White House and formalized news conferences, dividing presidential news into three different categories:

• Announcements directly owing to the president of the United States,
• Statements attributable to official sources, only non to the president himself, and
• Groundwork information for the reporter's noesis but not specifically owing to the president nor the White House^{[two] : 48–49}

George Akerson continued the tradition of meeting daily with reporters, and though usually of jovial temperament, was not known for the precision that was the hallmark of some of his predecessors, such as Cortelyou.^{[ii] : 53} On ane occasion, he incorrectly stated that sitting Supreme Court justice Harlan Stone had been elevated to be chief justice, only to have to issue a statement after that the actual nominee was Charles Evans Hughes.^{[ii] : 53} Akerson also struggled at times with his role in a growing White House staff.^{[2] : 53} Akerson was one of iii secretaries to the president, and some speculated that Hoover's closeness to his other secretary, Lawrence Richey, a erstwhile detective and Secret Service agent, made it difficult for Akerson to obtain the kind of information he needed to finer do his task.^{[two] : 53} Equally poor coverage made President Hoover appear discrete and out of touch amidst a worsening depression, Richey and Akerson disagreed most the most effective press strategy, with Akerson promoting the idea that Hoover should leverage the increasingly influential platform of radio, and Richey arguing that the radio strategy was not worthy of the presidency.^{[2] : 55} Akerson resigned not long thereafter, and Theodore Joslin, a former reporter, was named as the new secretarial assistant.^{[ii] : 55} Relations between the Hoover administration and the press connected to reject.^{[ii] : 65}

Roosevelt administration, Steve Early on, and the first "White Business firm press secretarial assistant" [edit]

During the administration of presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt, journalist Stephen Early on became the beginning White House secretary charged only with press responsibilities. The way in which Early on approached his portfolio and increasingly high-profile nature of the job have led many to state that Early on is the first truthful White House printing secretary, both in office and in formal championship.^{[ii] : 65} Prior to joining the Roosevelt entrada and administration Early had served as an editor to the armed services paper Stars and Stripes and also equally a reporter for the Associated Press.^{[ii] : 67} When Roosevelt was nominated on James Cox's ticket as the vice presidential nominee in 1920, he asked Early to serve as an advance representative. As an advance representative, Early traveled ahead of the campaign, arranged for logistics and attempted to promote positive coverage for the candidates.^{[2] : 67}

When President Roosevelt won the presidency in 1932, he chose Early to be his secretary responsible for handling the press, or as the function was becoming known, "the press secretarial assistant".^{[two] : 69} After accepting the task, Early laid out for Roosevelt his vision of how the role should exist conducted. He requested having unfettered access to the president, having his quotes and statements directly owing to him as press secretary, and offering every bit much factual information to the press as it became available. He likewise convinced Roosevelt to agree to twice-weekly presidential press conferences, with the timing of each tailored to the dissimilar deadline schedules of the White House Press Corps. Early on also fabricated himself available to the press corps as often as he could, and though he was not known for a lighthearted or amiable demeanor, he earned a reputation for responsiveness and openness, fifty-fifty having his ain telephone number listed unlike some of those who held the chore after him.^{[2] : 69}

Despite the unpopularity of press conferences by the end of the Hoover administration, Roosevelt connected the tradition.^{[2] : 71} He did away with written questions submitted in accelerate and mandated that nothing he said in press conferences could exist attributed to him or the White House, but was instead intended for reporters' full general background information.^{[ii] : 71} Many reporters found this helpful as information technology allowed the president to exist forthright and candid in his assessments and answers their questions.^{[two] : 71} Unlike some of his predecessors who filled the function, Early on routinely prepared Roosevelt for press conferences, bringing the president'due south attending to issues that might come up, suggesting the appropriate answers, and even planting questions or issues with sure reporters.^{[ii] : 72} Press conferences too began a tradition where the senior wire reporter concludes the session by stating, "Thanks, Mr. President", signaling that the time for questioning is over,^{[two] : 72} a tradition that continues today.^[10] Roosevelt held well over 300 press conferences during his first term.^{[ii] : 72}

Though some reporters were unsatisfied with the corporeality of real news or new information they were getting from the press conferences, the Roosevelt administration nether Early's leadership was considered by many to be constructive at managing the White Firm's relationship with the press.^{[2] : 74} During the administration, U.Due south. News reported that "The machinery for getting and giving the news runs about as smoothly every bit could be wished from either side."^{[2] : 74}

The Roosevelt White House was besides marked by a meaning increase in the number of White Business firm staff supporting the president and bureaucracy in general, largely equally a result of increased New Deal funding.^{[ii] : 74–75} Early was criticized at times for attempting to closely manage press officers at various department and agencies beyond the regime, and gave out a number of such jobs to journalists who he knew, instead of party loyalists who had traditionally received such appointments.^{[2] : 75} A congressional investigation several years later revealed that across regime, fewer than 150 employees were engaged in public relations along with an boosted 14 part-time workers.^{[ii] : 75} This is a significant increase given that White Firm staff numbered at 11 in total when Roosevelt took office.^{[2] : 74}

Early was involved in Roosevelt taking reward of the radio medium through his fireside chats, an idea some say he got from George Akerson who had unsuccessfully tried to convince President Hoover to do something similar.^{[2] : 77} Early also came under fire for the rules surrounding African American journalists not being immune to attend presidential printing conferences.^{[two] : 78} Some have said that Early on used enforcement of the standing rule, which had been to only let regular Washington journalists to attend the press conferences, to deny press conference access to blackness reporters.^{[2] : 78} Since many if not nearly blackness publications at the time were weeklies, they were restricted as a outcome of the rules.^{[2] : 78} When African American reporters from daily publications requested access to the conferences, Early reportedly told them to seek accreditation from Capitol Loma press officers, which was another sometimes insurmountable challenge.^{[2] : 78} African American reporters did not gain formal blessing to nourish White House news conferences until 1944.^{[2] : 78}

Early's tenure as press secretary was also marked by stringent restrictions on photographers, largely aimed at hiding the severity of FDR'due south polio and worsening immobility.^{[2] : lxxx} Photographers were not permitted to be closer than 12 feet (3.7 m) of FDR, or 30 feet (9.1 m) in larger events.^{[2] : 80}

As a result of the increasingly loftier-contour nature of the job and Early on's sole responsibility of managing the White Firm press operations, it was during the Roosevelt administration that Early on and the position he held began to be formally referred to as the press secretary.^{[2] : 66} Equally a upshot, many indicate to Steve Early as the first White Firm press secretary.^{[2] : 66}

Eisenhower administration, James Hagerty, printing secretary role evolves [edit]

As a candidate for president, Dwight D. Eisenhower tapped James Hagerty, a former reporter for the New York Times, to be his press secretarial assistant.^[eleven] Hagerty had previously been press secretary for New York governor Thomas E. Dewey during his two tries for the presidency. Afterwards he won election, Eisenhower appointed Hagerty to be White House press secretary.

Hagerty's experience as a journalist helped him perform his function more effectively: "Having spent years equally a reporter on the other side of the news bulwark, he was not blinded to the reporter's dependence on deadlines, manual facilities, prompt texts of speeches and statements and the frequent necessity of having to enquire seemingly irrelevant and inconsequential questions", wrote John McQuiston in the New York Times".^[eleven]

At Hagerty'due south first meeting with White Business firm reporters on Jan 21, 1953, he laid down ground rules that are still largely a model for how the press secretary operates. He said:

I would similar to say to you fellows that I am not going to play any favorites, and I'yard non going to requite out any exclusive stories about the president or the White House.

When I say to yous, 'I don't know,' I mean I don't know. When I say, 'No comment,' it means I'k not talking, but not necessarily whatsoever more than that.

Aside from that, I'k here to help you go the news. I am too hither to piece of work for ane human being, who happens to be the president. And I will do that to the best of my ability.^[11]

The do of regularly scheduled presidential news conference was instituted during the Eisenhower assistants. Hagerty abolished the longstanding rule that the president could not be direct quoted without permission—for the first fourth dimension, everything that the president said at a press conference could be printed verbatim.

In 1955, during the Eisenhower administration, newsreel and television cameras were allowed in presidential news conferences for the get-go time.^[xi]

When President Eisenhower suffered a heart assail in Denver in September 1955, and underwent abdominal surgery the post-obit year, Hagerty brought news to the nation in a calm and professional person fashion. "His performances in both crises won him more respect from newsmen than any presidential printing secretary in retentiveness", said a New York Times writer.^[xi]

Hagerty remained press secretarial assistant for eight years, yet the record for longest fourth dimension served in that position. Eisenhower grew to trust Hagerty to such a caste that the role of press secretary was elevated to that of a senior advisor to the president.

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Evaluations [edit]

Michael J. Towle weighs iv factors determining the success and popularity of all seven printing secretaries 1953 to 1980. Experts generally hold that James C. Hagerty, under Eisenhower, set the standard by which later press secretaries are judged. Nether Carter, Jody Powell followed the Hagerty model, and was too judged successful. For Towle the showtime factor is the importance and axis of the printing secretary to the administration. Insiders who participate in loftier-level conclusion-making do better at explaining policy; the press has less confidence in outsiders, Towle concludes. The second factor is how tightly the role is controlled by the president. The media pays more attention to secretaries who are allowed to elaborate, and expound on the president'south thoughts, and answer probing questions. Third, does the president signal conviction in the printing secretarial assistant. 4th is the respect the secretarial assistant has won from the press in terms of knowledge, credibility, clarity, promptness and power to provide information on a wide range of policies.^[12]

Towle concludes that history had judged Hagerty and Salinger as successful. Lyndon Johnson confided in Salinger but distrusted the media and hobbled his next three printing secretaries. Nixon throughout his career saw the printing every bit the enemy, and the media responded in hostile fashion, leaving the young inexperienced Ronald Ziegler with a hopeless challenge. President Ford's start secretary was Jerald F. terHorst – he resigned in protest when Ford pardoned Nixon. Next came Ronald Nessen, who quickly acquired a reputation every bit inept, uninformed or noncredible, specially on foreign affairs. At the opposite extreme, the successful Jody Powell had been a close advisor to Carter for years, and could explicate clearly how the president reasoned virtually issues. Carter said he "probably knows me improve than anyone except my wife."^[12]

Responsibilities [edit]

Sarah Sanders speaks to reporters outside the White House in 2019

The printing secretary is responsible for collecting data well-nigh deportment and events within the president's administration and around the world, and interacting with the media, more often than not in a daily printing briefing. The data includes items such as a summary of the president'south schedule for the day, whom the president has seen, or had communication and the official position of the administration on the news of the day.

The press secretarial assistant traditionally also fields questions from the White House press corps in briefings and press conferences, which are generally televised, and "printing gaggles", which are on-the-record briefings without video recording, although transcripts are ordinarily fabricated available.

The position has often been filled by individuals from news media backgrounds:

• Roosevelt administration – Stephen Early on, a reporter for United Press International and contributor for The Associated Press.^[xiii]
• Truman administration – Jonathan Due west. Daniels, a newspaper human being who was in the Franklin Roosevelt administration in multiple agencies and on diverse boards but prior to condign press secretary;^[14] Charlie Ross, a journalist who received the Pulitzer Prize in 1932;^[fifteen] Early; Joseph Short, a paper man;^[xvi] and Roger Tubby, a reporter and editor turned Democratic National Committee spokesman earlier becoming White House printing secretary^[17]
• Eisenhower administration – James C. Hagerty, a reporter for the New York Times ^[18]
• Kennedy assistants – Pierre Salinger, a reporter and editor for the San Francisco Chronicle ^[nineteen]
• Johnson administration – appointed George Christian, a reporter for International News Service^[20] and PBS commentator Pecker Moyers^[21]
• Ford assistants – appointed Jerald terHorst, a paper veteran;^[22] and Ron Nessen, an NBC News correspondent^[23]
• Reagan administration – Larry Speakes, a newspaper man;^[24] and Marlin Fitzwater, a newspaper man^[25]
• George H. W. Bush administration – Marlin Fitzwater^[25]
• George W. Bush-league administration – Tony Snow, a veteran announcer and Fox News anchor^[26]
• Obama administration – Jay Carney, Fourth dimension magazine journalist.^[27]
• Trump administration – Kayleigh McEnany, Fox News political commentator.
• Biden administration – Jen Psaki, CNN political commentator.

List of press secretaries [edit]

No.	Portrait	Officeholder	Tenure commencement	Tenure end	Tenure duration	President
01		George E. Akerson	March 4, 1929	March sixteen, 1931	two years, 12 days	Herbert Hoover
02		Theodore Joslin	March sixteen, 1931	March 4, 1933	1 year, 353 days
0three		Stephen Early	March 4, 1933	March 29, 1945	12 years, 25 days	Franklin D. Roosevelt
04		Jonathan West. Daniels	March 29, 1945	May 15, 1945	47 days
						Harry South. Truman
05		Charlie Ross	May fifteen, 1945	December 5, 1950	5 years, 204 days
Acting		Stephen Early Acting	December 5, 1950	December eighteen, 1950	13 days
06		Joseph Short	December 5, 1950	September 18, 1952	one yr, 288 days
07		Roger Tubby	September xviii, 1952	January 20, 1953	124 days
08		James Hagerty	January 20, 1953	Jan 20, 1961	8 years, 0 days	Dwight D. Eisenhower
09		Pierre Salinger	January 20, 1961	March xix, 1964	3 years, 59 days	John F. Kennedy
						Lyndon B. Johnson
x		George Reedy	March 19, 1964	July viii, 1965	1 twelvemonth, 111 days
11		Bill Moyers	July 8, 1965	February ane, 1967	1 year, 208 days
12		George Christian	Feb one, 1967	January 20, 1969	ane year, 354 days
13		Ron Ziegler	January 20, 1969	August 9, 1974	five years, 201 days	Richard Nixon
14		Jerald terHorst	August 9, 1974	September 9, 1974	31 days	Gerald Ford
15		Ron Nessen	September 9, 1974	January xx, 1977	two years, 133 days
xvi		Jody Powell	January twenty, 1977	Jan xx, 1981	four years, 0 days	Jimmy Carter
17		James Brady[a]	January 20, 1981	March 30, 1981 (de facto) January twenty, 1989 (de jure)	69 days/8 years, 0 days	Ronald Reagan
Interim		Larry Speakes[a]	March 30, 1981	Feb 1, 1987	5 years, 308 days
Interim		Marlin Fitzwater[a]	February 1, 1987	January twenty, 1989	5 years, 354 days
18			January twenty, 1989	Jan 20, 1993		George H. W. Bush
19		Dee Dee Myers[b]	January twenty, 1993	December 22, 1994	ane yr, 336 days	Bill Clinton
–		George Stephanopoulos[c] De facto	January 20, 1993	June 7, 1993	138 days
20		Mike McCurry	December 22, 1994	August 4, 1998	iii years, 225 days
21		Joe Lockhart	August four, 1998	September 29, 2000	ii years, 56 days
22		Jake Siewert	September xxx, 2000	January xx, 2001	112 days
23		Ari Fleischer	Jan 20, 2001	July 15, 2003	2 years, 176 days	George W. Bush
24		Scott McClellan	July 15, 2003	May 10, 2006	2 years, 299 days
25		Tony Snow	May 10, 2006	September xiv, 2007	ane yr, 127 days
26		Dana Perino	September fourteen, 2007	January 20, 2009	1 yr, 128 days
27		Robert Gibbs	January twenty, 2009	February eleven, 2011	2 years, 22 days	Barack Obama
28		Jay Carney	Feb 11, 2011	June 20, 2014	iii years, 129 days
29		Josh Earnest	June 20, 2014	January xx, 2017	2 years, 214 days
30		Sean Spicer	January xx, 2017	July 21, 2017 [28]	182 days	Donald Trump
31		Sarah Sanders	July 21, 2017 [29] [xxx]	July one, 2019	ane year, 345 days
32		Stephanie Grisham[d]	July ane, 2019	Apr 7, 2020	281 days
33		Kayleigh McEnany	April 7, 2020	January 20, 2021	288 days
34		Jen Psaki	January 20, 2021	Incumbent	ane year, 30 days	Joe Biden

Notes

1. ^ ^{a b c} Brady formally retained the title of press secretary until the cease of the Reagan assistants in 1989, but he did not brief the press subsequently he was shot in the 1981 assassination attempt. Speakes and Fitzwater served as de facto press secretaries.
2. ^ Kickoff female person printing secretary.
3. ^ Stephanopoulos briefed the press during his tenure as director of communications, despite Myers formally belongings the title.
4. ^ Grisham, unlike her predecessors, did not hold any formal White House press briefings.

References [edit]

1. ^ "President-elect Joe Biden and Vice President-Elect Kamala Harris Announce Members of White House Senior Communications Staff". President-Elect Joe Biden. November 29, 2020.
2. ^ ^{a b c d e f one thousand h i j k l grand due north o p q r s t u v due west ten y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar every bit at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd be bf bg bh bi bj bk bl bm bn bo bp bq br bs bt bu bv bw bx by bz ca cb cc cd ce cf cg} Nelson, Due west. Dale (1998). Who Speaks for the President?: The White House Press Secretary from Cleveland to Clinton. Syracuse University Printing. ISBN0-8156-0514-v.
3. ^ Bumiller, Elizabeth (May thirty, 2005). "From Jenna'due south Ex to a Presidential Jeeves". The New York Times. Archived from the original on Nov 12, 2012. Retrieved April 23, 2011.
4. ^ Christopher, Tommy (March 18, 2011). "Jay Carney 1 Month Written report Carte". Mediaite. Archived from the original on May 18, 2011. Retrieved April 20, 2011.
5. ^ Patterson, Bradley (2008). To Serve the President: Continuity and Innovation in the White Firm Staff . Brookings Institution. p. 209. ISBN9780815769545.
6. ^ Cook, Dave (February 16, 2011). "White House Change of Way: Jay Carney Takes Podium equally New Printing Secretary". Christian Science Monitor. Archived from the original on April 23, 2011. Retrieved April 19, 2011.
7. ^ Stanton, Laura. "Within Obama'southward Due west Wing". The Washington Postal service. Archived from the original on April 29, 2011. Retrieved April 20, 2011.
8. ^ "President Bush Unveils Renovated Press Briefing Room". whitehouse.gov. July 11, 2007. Archived from the original on January 21, 2012. Retrieved April twenty, 2011 – via National Athenaeum.
9. ^ Engber, Daniel (Nov 19, 2005). "What'due south a senior administration official?". Slate Magazine. Archived from the original on July half dozen, 2011. Retrieved April 21, 2011.
10. ^ Patterson, Bradley (2008). To Serve the President: Continuity and Innovation in the White House Staff . Brookings Institution. p. 214. ISBN9780815769545.
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Farther reading [edit]

• Cavari, Amnon. The Party Politics of Presidential Rhetoric (Cambridge University Press. 2017).
• Clayman, Steven E., et al. "Historical Trends in Questioning Presidents, 1953‐2000." Presidential Studies Quarterly 36.4 (2006): 561–583. online
• Clayman, Steven E., et al. "A watershed in White House journalism: Explaining the mail-1968 ascent of aggressive presidential news." Political Communication 27.3 (2010): 229–247. online
• Eshbaugh-Soha, Matthew. "Presidential influence of the news media: The example of the press conference." Political Advice 30.4 (2013): 548–564.
• French, Blaire Atherton. The presidential press conference: Its history and function in the American political system (1982)
• Grossman, Michael Baruch, and Martha Joynt Kumar, eds. Portraying the president: The White House and the news media (1981).
• Han, Lori Cox, ed. Hatred of America's Presidents: Personal Attacks on the White Firm from Washington to Trump (ABC-CLIO, 2018).
• Juergens, George. News from the White House: The presidential-press relationship in the progressive era. (1981)
• Julian, Danielle. "Sean Spicer is the News: The Relationship Betwixt Sean Spicer and The White Business firm Press Corps". (Thesis. Auckland University of Engineering science, 2018.) oenline
• Klein, Woody (2008). All the Presidents' Spokesmen: Spinning the News, White House Press Secretaries from Franklin D. Roosevelt to George W. Bush-league. Greenwood. ISBN9780275990985. ; also another copy
• Kumar, Martha Joynt. "The part of the press secretary." Presidential Studies Quarterly 31.2 (2001): 296–322. online
• Kumar, Martha Joynt. "Conveying Presidential News: The White House Printing Corps Covers the President." Presidential Studies Quarterly 38.4 (2008): 674–692.
• Kumar, Martha Joynt. Managing the President'south Bulletin: The White Firm Communications Operation' (Johns Hopkins Upwards, 2007).
• Maltese, John Anthony. Spin control: The White Business firm Office of Communications and the management of presidential news (U of Northward Carolina Press, 2000).
• Meeks, Lindsey. "Questioning the president: Examining gender in the White House press corps." Journalism 19.4 (2018): 519–535.
• Nelson, Westward. Dale. Who Speaks for the President?: The White House Press Secretary from Cleveland to Clinton (Syracuse Upwardly, 1998) online gratis to borrow
• Parry, Pam. Eisenhower: The Public Relations President (Lexington Books, 2014).
• Pollard, James E. The presidents and the printing (1947).
• Ponder, Stephen. Managing the press: Origins of the media presidency 1897-1933 (1998)
• Spear, Joseph C. Presidents and the press: the Nixon legacy (1984) online free to infringe
• Spicer, Sean. The Briefing: Politics, the Press, and the President (Simon and Schuster, 2018). Primary source
• Spragens, William C., and Carole Ann Terwoord. From spokesman to Press Secretary : White Firm media operations (1980) online complimentary to borrow
• Startt, James. Woodrow Wilson, the Great War, and the Fourth Estate (2017).
• Tebbel, John, and Sarah Miles Watts. The Press and the Presidency: From George Washington to Ronald Reagan (1985)
• Towle, Michael J. "On behalf of the president: 4 factors affecting the success of the presidential press secretary." Presidential Studies Quarterly 27.2 (1997): 297–319. online

External links [edit]

• Conference Room at the official White House website
• Barack Obama Press Briefings at the National Archives and Records Assistants's annal of the official White House website
• George W. Bush Administration Printing Briefings at the National Archives and Records Administration's annal of the official White House website
• Clinton administration archives at the William J. Clinton Presidential Centre

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_House_Press_Secretary

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